NASA’s Webb Digs into Structural Origins of Disk Galaxies

Present-day disk galaxies often contain a thick, star-filled outer disk and an embedded thin disk of stars. For instance, our own Milky Way galaxy’s thick disk is approximately 3,000 light-years in height, and its thin disk is roughly 1,000 light-years thick. How and why does this dual disk structure form? By analyzing archival data from […]

Jun 26, 2025 - 18:28

5 Min Read

NASA’s Webb Digs into Structural Origins of Disk Galaxies

Eight edge-on disk galaxies observed by the James Webb Space Telescope, split in two rows. Each disk galaxy is centered within a square frame and lies against the black background of space. They appear as thin lines with a slight bulge in their centers. A few of the galaxies are horizontal or vertical, but many are angled diagonally.

Astronomers pulled from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope’s data to analyze a sample of 111 edge-on galaxies. The team’s analysis suggests that thick disk formation occurs first, and thin disk formation follows. Full image and caption below.

Credits:
NASA, ESA, CSA, T. Tsukui (Australian National University).

Present-day disk galaxies often contain a thick, star-filled outer disk and an embedded thin disk of stars. For instance, our own Milky Way galaxy’s thick disk is approximately 3,000 light-years in height, and its thin disk is roughly 1,000 light-years thick.

How and why does this dual disk structure form? By analyzing archival data from multiple observational programs by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, a team of astronomers is closer to answers, as well as understanding the origins of disk galaxies in general.

The team carefully identified, visually verified, and analyzed a statistical sample of 111 edge-on disk galaxies at various periods — up to 11 billion years ago (or approximately 2.8 billion years after the big bang). This is the first time scientists have investigated thick- and thin-disk structures spanning such vast distances, bridging the gap between observers probing the early universe and galactic archaeologists seeking to understand our own galaxy’s history.

“This unique measurement of the thickness of the disks at high redshift, or at times in the early universe, is a benchmark for theoretical study that was only possible with Webb,” said Takafumi Tsukui, lead author of the paper and a researcher at the Australian National University in Canberra. “Usually, the older, thick disk stars are faint, and the young, thin disk stars outshine the entire galaxy. But with Webb’s resolution and unique ability to see through dust and highlight faint old stars, we can identify the two-disk structure of galaxies and measure their thickness separately.”

Image: A Sample of Galaxy Disks (NIRCam)

Two mosaics of edge-on disk galaxies observed by the James Webb Space Telescope. Each mosaic has eight images, split in two rows. The mosaic at the top is titled “thin and thick disk galaxies.” The mosaic at the bottom is titled “thick disk only galaxies.” Each disk galaxy is centered within a square frame and lies against the black background of space. They appear as thin lines with a slight bulge in their centers. A few of the galaxies are horizontal or vertical, but many are angled diagonally. The thin and thick disk galaxies are overall whiter and brighter compared to the thick disk only galaxies, which are fainter and brown-orange. Text in the bottom right of each box lists the galaxy’s redshift. From left to right, the first row of the top mosaic reads z =0.12; z = 0.25; z = 0.45; and z = 0.72. The second row reads z = 0.21; z = 0.38; z =0.65; and z = 0.73. The top row of the bottom mosaic reads z = 0.73, z = 0.94; z = 1.25; and z = 2.63. The bottom row reads z = 0.91; z = 1.03; z = 2.13; and z = 3.01.

NASA, ESA, CSA, T. Tsukui (Australian National University).

Data Through Thick and Thin

By analyzing these 111 targets over cosmological time, the team was able to study single-disk galaxies and double-disk galaxies. Their results indicate that galaxies form a thick disk first, followed by a thin disk. The timing of when this takes place is dependent on the galaxy’s mass: high-mass, single-disk galaxies transitioned to two-disk structures around 8 billion years ago. In contrast, low-mass, single-disk galaxies formed their embedded thin disks later on, about 4 billion years ago.

“This is the first time it has been possible to resolve thin stellar disks at higher redshift. What’s really novel is uncovering when thin stellar disks start to emerge,” said Emily Wisnioski, a co-author of the paper at the Australian National University in Canberra. “To see thin stellar disks already in place 8 billion years ago, or even earlier, was surprising.”

A Turbulent Time for Galaxies

To explain this transition from a single, thick disk to a thick and thin disk, and the difference in timing for high- and low-mass galaxies, the team looked beyond their initial edge-on galaxy sample and examined data showing gas in motion from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) and ground-based surveys.

By taking into consideration the motion of the galaxies’ gas disks, the team finds their results align with the “turbulent gas disk” scenario, one of three major hypotheses that has been proposed to explain the process of thick- and thin-disk formation. In this scenario, a turbulent gas disk in the early universe sparks intense star formation, forming a thick stellar disk. As stars form, they stabilize the gas disk, which becomes less turbulent and, as a result, thinner.

Since massive galaxies can more efficiently convert gas into stars, they settle sooner than their low-mass counterparts, resulting in the earlier formation of thin disks. The team notes that thick- and thin-disk formation are not siloed events: The thick disk continues to grow as the galaxy develops, though it’s slower than the thin disk’s rate of growth.

How This Applies to Home

Webb’s sensitivity is enabling astronomers to observe smaller and fainter galaxies, analogous to our own, at early times and with unprecedented clarity for the first time. In this study, the team noted that the transition period from thick disk to a thick and thin disk roughly coincides with the formation of the Milky Way galaxy’s thin disk. With Webb, astronomers will be able to further investigate Milky Way-like progenitors — galaxies that would have preceded the Milky Way — which could help explain our galaxy’s formation history.

In the future, the team intends to incorporate other data points into their edge-on galaxy sample.

“While this study structurally distinguishes thin and thick disks, there is still much more we would like to explore,” said Tsukui. “We want to add the type of information people usually get for nearby galaxies, like stellar motion, age, and metallicity. By doing so, we can bridge the insights from galaxies near and far, and refine our understanding of disk formation.”

These results were published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.

The James Webb Space Telescope is the world’s premier space science observatory. Webb is solving mysteries in our solar system, looking beyond to distant worlds around other stars, and probing the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it. Webb is an international program led by NASA with its partners, ESA (European Space Agency) and CSA (Canadian Space Agency).

To learn more about Webb, visit:

https://science.nasa.gov/webb