Webb’s Titan Forecast: Partly Cloudy With Occasional Methane Showers

Saturn’s moon Titan is an intriguing world cloaked in a yellowish, smoggy haze. Similar to Earth, the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and has weather, including clouds and rain. Unlike Earth, whose weather is driven by evaporating and condensing water, frigid Titan has a methane cycle. NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, supplemented with images from the […]

May 14, 2025 - 13:10

7 Min Read

Webb’s Titan Forecast: Partly Cloudy With Occasional Methane Showers

A six-panel graphic with two rows and three columns, showing infrared images of Saturn’s moon Titan. The leftmost images show a mottled globe of brown and yellow with a hazy blue edge. At the top, a white spot that is somewhat faint in the top row image and brighter in the bottom row image. The middle column shows a dark orange globe with a brighter edge. The only features are bright spots near the top and bottom. The top spot is fainter in the top row image and brighter in the bottom row image. The rightmost images also show a dark orange globe with a brighter edge. The top row image is otherwise featureless. The bottom row image, taken three days later, has bright spots near the top and bottom.

These images of Titan were taken by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope on July 11, 2023 (top row) and the ground-based W.M. Keck Observatories on July 14, 2023 (bottom row). They show methane clouds appearing at different altitudes in Titan’s northern hemisphere. Full image and description below.

Credits:
NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, and W.M. Keck Observatories

Saturn’s moon Titan is an intriguing world cloaked in a yellowish, smoggy haze. Similar to Earth, the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and has weather, including clouds and rain. Unlike Earth, whose weather is driven by evaporating and condensing water, frigid Titan has a methane cycle.

NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, supplemented with images from the Keck II telescope, has for the first time found evidence for cloud convection in Titan’s northern hemisphere, over a region of lakes and seas. Webb also has detected a key carbon-containing molecule that gives insight into the chemical processes in Titan’s complex atmosphere.

Titan’s Weather

On Titan, methane plays a similar role to water on Earth when it comes to weather. It evaporates from the surface and rises into the atmosphere, where it condenses to form methane clouds. Occasionally it falls as a chilly, oily rain onto a solid surface where water ice is hard as rocks.

“Titan is the only other place in our solar system that has weather like Earth, in the sense that it has clouds and rainfall onto a surface,” explained lead author Conor Nixon of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.

The team observed Titan in November 2022 and July 2023 using both Webb and one of the twin ground-based W.M. Keck Observatories telescopes. Those observations not only showed clouds in the mid and high northern latitudes on Titan – the hemisphere where it is currently summer – but also showed those clouds apparently rising to higher altitudes over time. While previous studies have observed cloud convection at southern latitudes, this is the first time evidence for such convection has been seen in the north. This is significant because most of Titan’s lakes and seas are located in its northern hemisphere and evaporation from lakes is a major potential methane source. Their total area is similar to that of the Great Lakes in North America.

On Earth the lowest layer of the atmosphere, or troposphere, extends up to an altitude of about 7 miles (12 kilometers). However, on Titan, whose lower gravity allows the atmospheric layers to expand, the troposphere extends up to about 27 miles (45 kilometers). Webb and Keck used different infrared filters to probe to different depths in Titan’s atmosphere, allowing astronomers to estimate the altitudes of the clouds. The science team observed clouds that appeared to move to higher altitudes over a period of days, although they were not able to directly see any precipitation occurring.

Image A: Titan (Webb and Keck Image)

A six-panel graphic with two rows and three columns, showing infrared images of Saturn’s moon Titan. The top row is labeled “Webb, 11 July 2023” and the bottom row is labeled “Keck, 14 July 2023.” The leftmost images are labeled “atmosphere and surface.” They show a mottled globe of brown and yellow with a hazy blue edge. At the top, a white spot that is somewhat faint in the Webb image and brighter in the Keck image has an arrow pointing to it. The middle column is labeled “troposphere” and shows a dark orange globe with a brighter edge. The only features are bright spots near the top and bottom. The top spot is fainter in the Webb image and brighter in the Keck image, and has an arrow pointing to it. The rightmost images are labeled “stratosphere” and also show a dark orange globe with a brighter edge. The top image from Webb is otherwise featureless. The bottom image from Keck, taken three days later, has bright spots near the top and bottom. The top spot has an arrow pointing to it.

These images of Titan were taken by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope on July 11, 2023 (top row) and the ground-based W.M. Keck Observatories on July 14, 2023 (bottom row). They show methane clouds (denoted by the white arrows) appearing at different altitudes in Titan’s northern hemisphere.

On the left side are representative-color images from both telescopes. In the Webb image light at 1.4 microns is colored blue, 1.5 microns is green, and 2.0 microns is red (filters F140M, F150W, and F200W, respectively). In the Keck image light at 2.13 microns is colored blue, 2.12 microns is green, and 2.06 microns is red (H₂ 1-0, Kp, and He1b, respectively).

In the middle column are single-wavelength images taken by Webb and Keck at 2.12 microns. This wavelength is sensitive to emission from Titan’s lower troposphere. The rightmost images show emission at 1.64 microns (Webb) and 2.17 microns (Keck), which favor higher altitudes, in Titan’s upper troposphere and stratosphere (an atmospheric layer above the troposphere). It demonstrates that the clouds are seen at higher altitudes on July 14 than earlier on July 11, indicative of upward motion.

NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, and W.M. Keck Observatories

Titan’s Chemistry

Titan is an object of high astrobiological interest due to its complex organic (carbon-containing) chemistry. Organic molecules form the basis of all life on Earth, and studying them on a world like Titan may help scientists understand the processes that led to the origin of life on Earth.

The basic ingredient that drives much of Titan’s chemistry is methane, or CH₄. Methane in Titan’s atmosphere gets split apart by sunlight or energetic electrons from Saturn’s magnetosphere, and then recombines with other molecules to make substances like ethane (C₂H₆) along with more complex carbon-bearing molecules.

Webb’s data provided a key missing piece for our understanding of the chemical processes: a definitive detection of the methyl radical CH₃. This molecule (called “radical” because it has a “free” electron that is not in a chemical bond) forms when methane is broken apart. Detecting this substance means that scientists can see chemistry in action on Titan for the first time, rather than just the starting ingredients and the end products.

“For the first time we can see the chemical cake while it’s rising in the oven, instead of just the starting ingredients of flour and sugar, and then the final, iced cake,” said co-author Stefanie Milam of the Goddard Space Flight Center.

Image B: Chemistry in Titan’s Atmosphere

A four-panel infographic. The first three panels show the curved edge of an indistinct orange sphere on the bottom, implying the moon Titan, while the top of the image is dark to represent space. The fourth panel shows an illustration of Titan’s surface with a large, dark lake. 1) Ball-and-stick diagrams show molecules of nitrogen (N2) and methane (CH4). 2) From above, wiggly white lines labeled “electron” and “photon” drop down and intersect methane molecules that have been broken up into hydrogen atoms and the methyl radical (CH3). 3) A plus sign between two methyl radicals represents a chemical reaction, with a down arrow pointing to a ball-and-stick diagram of ethane (C2H6). 4) A large droplet containing methane and ethane is shown raining down toward the surface of Titan.

This four-panel infographic demonstrates a key chemical process believed to occur in the atmosphere of Saturn’s moon Titan.
1. Titan has a thick, nitrogen (N₂) atmosphere that also contains methane (CH₄).
2. Molecules known as methyl radicals (CH₃) form when methane is broken apart by sunlight or energetic electrons from Saturn’s magnetosphere.
3. It then recombines with other molecules or with itself to make substances like ethane (C₂H₆).
4. Methane, ethane, and other molecules condense and rain out of the atmosphere, forming lakes and seas on Titan’s surface. NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope detected the methyl radical on Titan for the first time, providing a key missing piece for our understanding of Titan’s chemical processes.

NASA, ESA, CSA, and Elizabeth Wheatley (STScI)

The Future of Titan’s Atmosphere

This hydrocarbon chemistry has long-term implications for the future of Titan. When methane is broken apart in the upper atmosphere, some of it recombines to make other molecules that eventually end up on Titan’s surface in one chemical form or another, while some hydrogen escapes from the atmosphere. As a result, methane will be depleted over time, unless there is some source to replenish it.

A similar process occurred on Mars, where water molecules were broken up and the resulting hydrogen lost to space. The result was the dry, desert planet we see today.

“On Titan, methane is a consumable. It’s possible that it is being constantly resupplied and fizzing out of the crust and interior over billions of years. If not, eventually it will all be gone and Titan will become a mostly airless world of dust and dunes,” said Nixon.

Video: Webb Spies Rain Clouds, New Molecule on Titan

Of all the alien worlds in our solar system, one in particular resembles our home planet. Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, is the only other place we know of where you could walk along the seashore or stand in the rain. However, Titan’s exotic seas and its oily raindrops are not made of water, but of the natural gases methane and ethane, super-chilled into liquid form. Now, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has revealed a crucial, missing step in how ethane is formed, and its discovery could tell us about the future of Titan’s atmosphere.

Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. Producer/Editor: Dan Gallagher. Lead Scientist/Narrator: Conor Nixon. Lead Animator: Jenny McElligott. Lead Visualizer: Andrew J Christensen. Scientist: Nicholas Lombardo. Animator/Art Director: Michael Lentz. Animation Lead: Walt Feimer. Animators: Jonathan North, Wes Buchanan, Kim Dongjae, Chris Meaney, Adriana Manrique Gutierrez. Data Visualizers: Mark SubbaRao, Kel Elkins, Ernie Wright. Data Provider: Juan Lora. Executive Producer: Wade Sisler. Social Media Support: Kathryn Mersmann. Public Affairs: Laura Betz.

Complementing the Dragonfly Mission

More of Titan’s mysteries will be probed by NASA’s Dragonfly mission, a robotic rotorcraft scheduled to land on Saturn’s moon in 2034. Making multiple flights, Dragonfly will explore a variety of locations. Its in-depth investigations will complement Webb’s global perspective.

“By combining all of these resources, including Webb, NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, and ground-based observatories, we maintain continuity between the former Cassini/Huygens mission to Saturn and the upcoming Dragonfly mission,” added Heidi Hammel, vice president of the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy and a Webb Interdisciplinary Scientist.

This data was taken as part of Hammel’s Guaranteed Time Observations program to study the Solar System. The results were published in the journal Nature Astronomy.

The James Webb Space Telescope is the world’s premier space science observatory. Webb is solving mysteries in our solar system, looking beyond to distant worlds around other stars, and probing the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it. Webb is an international program led by NASA with its partners, ESA (European Space Agency) and CSA (Canadian Space Agency).

To learn more about Webb, visit:

https://science.nasa.gov/webb